Thursday, October 31, 2019
Political Economy of Work and Health in Silicon Valley Case Study - 8
Political Economy of Work and Health in Silicon Valley - Case Study Example Santa Clara County was originally one of the counties of California and formed part of statehood. When California was added to the United States in 1848, Santa Clara County attracted many other towns around it after the gold rush. The towns were supply centers for California’s gold rush dealers. A brief description of the Chinese Immigrant and Native Americans The Chinese immigrants first came to America in 1838 and the inflow peaked in 1850. The Chinese were flocking to California for the gold rush. It was difficult to assimilate Chinese into Native American culture. While in America, they maintained their ways, but their culture was considered by Native Americans as inferior. A brief description of the â€Å"Temp Slave†Economy Tempt slave economy is a new promise for personal freedom and individual creativity. It provides new ways of jobs creation in which one can design out of temporary consulting engagement and employment. In temp slave, people must volunteer to be employed and offer employment to others.
Tuesday, October 29, 2019
Censorship v Pornography Essay Example for Free
Censorship v Pornography Essay 1.0  Introduction:      This paper seeks to determine whether there is basis to use censorship to deal with pornography, based on critical assessment of the feminist debates about the issue. In addition, an examination on how pornography is made similar to prostitution, drugs, and other marginal crimes will be analyzed given its roots in moral judgments and the ambiguous nature of its harms. Knowing the possible harms that are associated with pornography and the reasons for the need for its regulation will also form part of the analysis with the end view of evaluating whether censorship is the solution to pornography.  Analysis and Discussion 2.1 What is pornography?      To understand pornography, there is a need to look at it from its background up to present times.  Webb (1995) attempted to study more profoundly by looking back at the sexual practices that have been depicted in many cultures, from Greek, and Roman to Chinese and Japanese, for centuries. She found that the term pornography was just used to describe some of these depictions in much recent times. She explained that the term arose together with certain aspects of the tyrannical sexual morality developed by the capitalist ruling class during the 19th century.  She blamed the polarization of the Victorian period which caused dividing the line on what was â€Å"respectable†and what was not between women’s groups (Webb, 1995).     The basis of this respectability was related to the ‘dangers’ of female sexuality and its regulation and that women were required into an inflexible duality. Women were therefore categorized into â€Å"good†women who were asexual, â€Å"chaste’ before they have their marriage and â€Å"pure†after.  Thus, Webb argued that sex was only necessary for reproduction not pleasure, and the consequence was to confine the same to married heterosexual couples. As a result, women that were found to have sexual activities outside this unbending rule were condemned and which ultimately led to prostitution (Webb, 1995).      The issue of pornography was felt more in the some countries than others. Webb (1995) cited about the laws of pornography and obscenity in England and the US which covered much more than others as censorship in there is extended to the production, sale, and possession or transacting of written and graphic sexual material. The issue even went as far as banning contraceptive or abortion drugs, devices and information; and making it a crime to have homosexual behavior between consenting male adults. The result of these prohibitions was also to give police greater summary power over working class women and children because of threat of charging women and children the violation of the laws which may not be obviously be made to men (Webb, 1995).      The notion of pornography cannot be detached from its forms of art access to which was restricted to capitalistic men claiming to have some sort of academic interest. As such censorship was directed only against  women, children and working-class men that resulted to discrimination. The limitation or restriction to access to pornography limited occasions for questioning the supposed to be proper values for sexuality, for women and for the family. Webb (1995) explained that the practice had the effect of the having and philosophy reinforcing the family system, which was understood to be the basic unit of capitalist society.       The effect of this practice is to limit women into the private area of the home and their domestic labor. This caused these women not to create commodities for sale on the market. Getting unpaid for their work at home, feminists believe that this resulted to their economic reliance upon fathers and or husbands as further toughened by their limited access to education and properly paid work. If ever they get employed they will eventually be paid the lower rate. They also lost control over their fertility and expression of sexuality. To make matters  worse, society has criminalized violation of pornography and this has affected the women even more. Sexual freedom was therefore curtailed during the 19th century (Webb, 1995).  2.1.1 Defining pornography and its problems       The dramatic change that has happened with pornography since the term was first used in the 19th century is just simply obvious.  Webb (1995) explained that during that time there was nothing about what is scientific, medical, artistic or popular context to be exempted from the liability for violating pornography. It was only by the 20th century pornography when exemption could be had from pornography on the claim of being scientific or artistic merit.  Pornography then was defined under the general line as something that is produced for the purpose of producing sexual arousal, having no other â€Å"redeeming†feature. This is based on the assumption that to set out intentionally to produce sexual arousal is dreadful but if the main objective of the work is scientific or artistic, and the possibility of sexual arousal is only incidental, then these higher purpose may excuse the publication (Webb, 1995).      Given therefore the definition of the pornography, it would mean that pornography is relative to the eye of the viewer and in which, case it becomes an evil and not an art for those who cannot explain that is an art or not scientific to those who are uneducated.      Thus pornography could be defined in terms of suppression and containment of sexuality and sexual arousal which confuse things. Webb (1995) argued that images of sexuality can be positive and affirming and she cited the case of many lesbian and gay male definitions and positive images of their sexuality that have played an important part in their fight for democratic right and against persecution. She put in parallel that feminism had similarly redefined gender roles of masculinity and femininity, sexuality, and sensuality by using positive views and affirmations of choice and experimentation rather than passivity and submissiveness. By so having positive affirmations, sexual terms like what is erotic and what is pornographic could be delineated when properly debated upon and tested out so as to challenge the  old morality where it was defined by olden times that sexuality itself is hazardous and perilous to women (Webb, 1995)       What can be seen therefore is a confusion as to proper definition of pornography and its propriety of defining as such would seem to depend on less number of who are against it or lack of sufficient number of those show can express themselves that pornography is not evil to them. If such is the case, it would seem that level of maturity in terms on moral belief is something that other people or the state can dictate upon the members of the community especially the women although the latter are already in their adulthood.       To purpose of pornography definition is only required if one is to make a law about pornography but as admitted by Kuhn (1988) pornography is â€Å"social construct†¦ subject to historical variations.† It could therefore be established that pornography is a matter of culture where morality is relative. What is erotic to one culture may be pornographic to others (Webb, 1995). 2.2 What is censorship?       There are two views on the matter of censorship. There are those who are against and there are those who favor (Rodgerson and Wilson, 1991) of its use to control pornography. While both views espouse the causes how to promote women’s rights, their approaches how to fight for their causes are different. Webb (1995) cited feminists groups like Dworkin and MacKinnon who elevated the abolition of pornography to a strategy for liberating women. Dworkin (1981) stated that pornography is the belief that could explain all forms of women’s oppression and hence she espoused banning the same. The choice to ban pornography to liberate women is based on the view that women’s repression is caused by the power of an inherently female sexuality.  It assumes that all men are dormant rapist, in the making to be activated by pornography. Thus it was said that pornography is the theory and rape is the practice (Webb, 1995).      The proponents’ assumption that men are rapist waiting to be activated by pornography could not be said to be already established. Thus on the basis of the great probability of wrong assumption, pornography then could not just be solved by censorship.  Until scientific evidence therefore is established what is assumed could be validated empirically, it is really very dangerous to make such an assumption since laws that would be passed would not have also logical if not substantial basis to actually address the issue of pornography correctly.       Expressing disagreement on the assumption about men in the banning pornography, Webb (1995) explained that this is a biological determinist view that does not allow much scope for women’s liberation but rather it was more an attempt by individual women to totally separate themselves from any likely contact with men. She argued that if all men are inherently oppressors of all women then women may just as well give up struggling now (Webb, 1995). She therefore saw the wrongness of the assumption that men are presumed rapist.  She argued that although people are socially conditioned to behave in certain ways, those who espouse the belief that men are presumed rapist, necessarily disregard the very important element of self-consciousness, reflective and reasoning power, and emotional response. Citing contradiction with scientific evidence, Webb (1995) asserted that to see men as programmed for violence not only endorses the most conservative view of human nature, it also absolves men of any responsibility for their actions.      The argument that men are programmed or conditioned to rape of women absolves men of responsibility is tenable because it presupposes the absence of choice or freedom which is an element in crimes or statute violation of statutes. Freedom of choice is necessary to hold one accountable but to impose the belief that men are programmed to act would defeat the very purpose of defining crime where there is an assumption that men are waiting women to rape after reading the so called â€Å"pornographic†materials.     Coward (1982) supported this latter view when she attacked the view of an inherent aggressive male sexuality.  Coward reminded that the view implies that any expression of male sexuality will be oppressive to women. Thus she argued like Webb that the fight must be given up as women should withdraw from any public, or even private, exploration of sexuality in order to avoid male manipulation (Webb, 1995).     To argue therefore that censorship is the solution to violence against women is mixing up violent images and violent acts. Portrayal of rape and rape itself are obviously different although connection could be noticed. Since the two are not identical, it is wrong to treat them the same way. Censorship or banning a description or picture of a violent act is not dealing on the act itself or its causes.   Banning was based on the wrong assumption and the wrong premise. To equate a picture with the actual act would be missing the point by really confusing the issue that would amount to an overkill and it has the effect of portraying that man is really evil waiting to rape women. Doing this, however, would violate the right to freedom of expression, which is one of the inherent rights of the individuals. It is difficult to imagine how would one testifying in court who was a victim of rape, to tell people of the bad experience without at least using some depiction or illustration. It would be hard too for investigators to gather evidence if they cannot even take a picture of the crime scene involving rape victim if the latter act would be equated with the act of raping. How about the courts, will they be charged for pornography for trying supposedly pornography violations because of the depiction of sexuality made in the course of the trial? The argument to equate depiction to the actual is simply absurd. 2.3 The feminist debates about the issue of pornography.      The debates of feminists about the issue of pornography have something to do with addressing the issue of sexism and the proper approach to solve the same.  Webb (1995) argued that sexual images can be both positive and negative. She explained that images can challenge the old stereotypes of women as passive and sexuality as dangerous, by presenting instead erotic imagery of women’s sexuality as pleasurable and active. She presented that pornographic images can also represent violence, abuse and degradation.      Finding the way on how to deal with the two sides of sexuality and its imagery in today’s society is the crux of the issue among feminist. Hence censorship is a controversial issue among feminist as it seems to be the most noticeable solution offered on the table by those in power to solve pornography. Answering therefore whether censorship of pornography is the most effective strategy or whether it only deals with the images and not the acts of violence directed against women is an interesting question to feminists. It is also asked whether implementing censorship could sweep away positive explorations of sexuality through the imposition of a new repressive morality. Will censorship liberate women is also an issue by these feminists (Webb, 1995).        Webb (1995) explained that fact women had won many parts gains over the last two decades and these have generated a higher consciousness of sexism, especially among young women. She admitted that while many of these gains are now under attack, women of today have more choices and have expectations as a result of their liberalization as compared with the past (Webb, 1995).  That women now can expect going university, getting a job and receiving equal pay as against the absence of these about three decades ago must indeed be strong indications of greater rights for these women. 2.4 The depiction of women in all areas of lives     Confronting the portrayal of women in all areas of their lives is a battle that feminists must fight. Webb (1995) brought out the fact the women are never absent from the magazines or TV programs, newspapers, or from advertising that uses sex and women’s bodies to sell products. She added that at the same time  society seemed to be obsessed with sex, exploring our sexuality, especially for women, is actively repressed. She noted an example done 1992, where the federal government banned the distribution of a diary, the Fact and Fantasy File Diary that was produced by the Family Planning Association to provide information to young people on sexuality and sexual health (Webb, 1995). She argued that  banning the publication of these materials on the ground of being pornographic is just skirting around the problem of sexism (Webb, 1995). 2.5 How is pornography similar to prostitution, drugs, and other marginal crimes?       Pornography cannot be similar to prostitution, drugs and other marginal crimes since banning the pornography actually violates freedom from expression and banning the same creates more harm. The harms that are associated with pornography as described by those who are supporting censorship may have no basis at all and there is not reason to equate depiction of rape with actual rape. There is no known research that would show that is a great correlation between the number of read pornographic materials and crime committed in relation to sexuality as a result. Although this was what was propagated by those who support censorship, the US Supreme Court has spoken that the ordinance to implement banning of pornographic materials violates freedom of speech. It would appear therefore that if any forthcoming or existing law on pornography if there is any could be rightfully challenged in the Supreme Court for the latter to declare it unconstitutional. An unconstitutional law, code or ordinance would produce no effect of therefore would confer no right on the part of enforcers to arrest violators and no obligation on the part of the supposed subjects would be expected. 2.6 What are the possible harms that are associated with pornography?     The possible harms that are associated with pornography include the possible sexual abuses against children and women as a result of failure to regulate the same. The claims of those who support censorship could be numerous because of the attempt to equate depiction of the act to the actual act but as argued earlier depiction is different from the actual act. Therefore for the purpose of this paper said feared harms are not given emphasis since there in scientific basis to substantiate the presence of actual harms in pornography that should be addressed properly by the enactment of laws that would penalize its violations. 2.7 What are the reasons for its regulation?      The reason for the regulation of pornography is to prevent the possible abuses that could be committed as a result of misguided use of information. The fact that it should be regulated and not banned appears to be the more responsive solution to the problem.  It is for this reason that movies should not be banned but rather reclassified to suit proper audiences and in the implementation of who could watch certain films is a matter of regulation and not censorship. 2.8 Is censorship effective in dealing with pornography?      Given therefore the background of pornography, one could just wonder whether the problem is properly defined. If not properly defined, would it be correct then to have censorship as the solution? The correctness therefore of the solution to pornography would depend on the validity of the assumptions that were made.  By this paper not having seen any evidence that would validate the assumptions made, it could not easily accept censorship as a solution.     In relation whether censorship is the solution, Webb (1995) said making a law on pornography â€Å"throws up the dilemma of the producer’s intent as opposes to the consumer’s response.†Thus she cited an illustration where an author or painter may intend his or her work to be erotic or a form of social commentary but another person may view it as pornographic. As proof, the novel entitled Mercy written by Dworkin (1990) was itself attacked as one to be graphically describing the continuous rape, torture and humiliation of the main character in the novel (Webb, 1995). Dworkin was in effect contradicting herself in this respect as she espousing censorship of any depiction but her novel violates the rules that she is fighting for.      Given the attack on Dworkin’s work,  it can be assumed that the  intent was to expose violence against women, not that it be read for sexual excitement but as Webb (1995) said,  Dworkin’s novel is exactly the sort of material that could be banned under the laws she herself proposes.  What does this mean then? The supposed way of Dworkin to reach her audience in writing the book had to use some languages that could be understood to portray sexual imagination or depiction and if evaluated on the standard of what is obscene then such work should also considered obscene. One may argue that Dworkin may be just trying to explain what is pornographic. Precisely, that is what is meant by the difficultly of just describing anything about sex to be pornographic without really having to say or use the words related to its definition (Webb, 1995).      Perhaps being moved by anti-pornography authors’ beliefs, supporters of censorship that include Andrea Dworkin and Catherine MacKinnon, sometime in 1983, drafted an ordinance passed by the Minneapolis City Council to give women the right to bring to court producers, distributors, sellers and/or exhibitors of pornography once these people feel being harmed by the material.   The ordinance was however disapproved by the mayor (Webb, 1995).          A revised version of this legislation was passed by the Indianapolis City Council,  but was also unsuccessful after having been declared unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court on the ground of freedom of speech violation (Webb, 1995). The Supreme Court’s having declared the ordinance unconstitutional could only mean that the power of freedom of speech is paramount that to publicize it to educate people and letting them to  express themselves to discover what really are good and bad for them is an inherent human right. It is not the publication that is bad but it is the act of person who will act on the basis of whatever one senses using his or her power of perception. On the other extreme, a rapist need not see a picture to rape a woman whom that man has decided to rape. The evil of something should still depend on the freedom of a man to act on what one sees or hears and not necessarily be coming from the so called â€Å"pornographic†materials.      A position taken by those favoring censorship where pornography is defined within the explicit images of degradation and violence against women, has actually moved for more power through legislations (Webb, 1995).  As proof, Minneapolis Ordinance had that pornography is â€Å"the sexually explicit subordination of women, graphically depicted whether in pictures or in words†¦ women are presented dehumanized as sexual objects, things or commodities†¦who enjoy pain or humiliation.. in postures of sexual submission†¦ reduced to body parts†(Kelly, 1988, pp. 54-55). It is very clear from the definition that mere depiction is already a violation in pornography.       A major problem with the said law is that, although feminists may know what is degrading and dehumanizing to women, it is not the feminists who will make the decision in court. It is the judges who are dominated by men who have the power to define what is sexually moral and what is not. This is a reality that must be accepted. Webb (1995) cited a Canada court case where a reinterpretation of existing obscenity law along the lines of the Dworkin/MacKinnon ordinance, was used to forbid the lesbian magazine Bad Attitude and caused the raid of a lesbian and gay bookshop.     The other side of the issue therefore does not go for censorship as the solution for the simple reason that the act of banning will not put a stop to pornography. Thus to campaign for censorship is obviously not just. Pornography could not therefore be equated to prostitution (Arcand and Grady,1993), drugs and other marginal crimes for they belong to different realms. The first is just depiction or portrayal of acts while the latter are actual acts. No wonder attempts to make an ordinance that would prohibit the same by groups espousing censorship ended with being vetoed by a mayor and another attempt to revise the same ordinance resulted to be struck as unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court.       There are however still harms (Stark ,1997; Lottes et. al. Weller ,1993) that could be associated with pornography for which reason it should still be regulated by having selective banning especially to children who may not have the mental capacity to understand things while they are young. But as they mature an education that would help them understand about sexuality should be taught to them rather than resorting to complete censorship.       When these children become adults it could not be assumed that they do not know how to practice their freedom of choice and intellect in being morally responsible for their acts. If indeed pornography may be defined where women are depicted to be dehumanized sexual objects, then by all mean censorship appears to not the logical solution but rather it should be the proper education of people how should humans behave using said natural sexuality given to them.      One argument that is forwarded by those who espouse censorship is that pornography is big business (Alexander, M., 2002) therefore banning it will interrupt on capitalism’s ability to make profit from the oppression of women. Although pornography is admitted as a big business, it does not follow that it will not be sold if banned since capitalism has unremittingly created new needs and wants to exploit the economic concept of unsatisfied needs and wants. Business could always come up with a variation of projecting sex even in toys or internet games as sexuality will always be a part of the lives of humans.      It is therefore explaining to people about the implications of wrong use of sexuality and how they benefit from controlling the same that would be the better solution than completely stopping by prohibiting its depiction. Banning does not stop pornography, for it will just push it into the underground that would in effect come out in some other ways. The same shortsighted solution has the effect of also banning it as topic for public discussion and as venue to have constructive sexual alternatives.       Censorship of pornography has been the topic from many countries but it would seem that no law has been successful in actually stopping pornography. The moment a law is made to censor pornography, people’s need to understand the subject or to engage in any form has its own way of coming out in number of ways.       To oppose censorship should not be taken as condoning, ignoring or deprioritizing campaigns about the often aggressive and usually misogynist depiction of women in a society where capitalism has no sign of waning. Webb (1995) explained stated that women have a duty to be counted in the most effectual how to do away with images which are oppressive and sexist. These women should not seek to have pornography banned, but by starting a much more comprehensive debate about sex.      The same objective could also be attained by  campaigning for better sex education in different schools at different levels. Their minds should be opened to knowledge rather than deny then them capacity to be aware of the issues that would allow them to exercise their freedom to choose. By making people more aware of their sexuality, there is a greater chance to create more informed and responsible behavior as well as social attitudes that would allow free expression of sexuality would more within the reach of these women. Conclusion      It can be concluded that the concept of pornography appears to have its roots in the past that resulted into grouping women into categories on who are â€Å"good†,who are â€Å"chaste’ and who are pure. Being felt more in some than other countries, pornography is closely related to relativity of morality in different places. Where there are more prohibitions, the greater are the effects on the power of those who are to enforce the law against the would-be subjects like the children, working class women and working-class men. It therefore has is links with the concept of equality especially among women where the concept dawned on them as a way of discriminating them as against men who are not subject to said prohibition or censorship.     As could be expected based on it relativity characteristic, definitions of pornography could vary for different states or jurisdictions. Since the purpose of defining the same is for the authority to regulate or to prohibit the same, the problems could differ and whoever will be included as subjects in the said law will naturally be subject to its power and possible abuse by those who will implement the law. It could therefore be in terms of the suppression, containment of sexuality and sexual arousal depending on whose point of view, that the term could be defined. This therefore produces the effect of massive confusion.       Being therefore called a social construct, the concept of pornography depends at different times (Moon, R. 2000), so what to some is erotic is already pornographic to others.   To argue therefore for censorship is to argue to stopping the same in different ways depending on how pornography was defined. Certain feminists like Dworkin and MacKinnon supported the abolition of pornography as a way to free women. This strategy necessary takes the view that women’s repression is caused by the power of an inherently female sexuality. With the assumption that all men are dormant rapists, who are in the making to be activated by pornography, one could already infer the possible consequences of making such an assumption. Thus a point in time was necessarily arrived at where the depiction of an act was already being equated with the act.     The other side of the coin argues that to make the dangerous assumption about men that they are prone to raping which calls for banning pornography will not necessarily result in women liberation as espoused by Dworkin’s group. To sustain the assumption about men as inherently oppressors of all women would amount advising to just give up struggling now as this has the effect of removing from the men the responsibility for their acts. This therefore is clearly oppressive to women.       It should therefore be understandable to put one’s shoes with those of women as to the feminist debates about the issue of pornography because of the deep repercussions of their agreement or disagreement of laws that will define pornography and that will stop the same. Notable is the fact the mere prohibition of image depiction can make the old stereotype of women as passive and sexuality as dangerous. Censorship therefore is not the answer with the problem that was imperfectly defined, education is.      Simple regulation is therefore recommended rather censorship. Regulation of course extends to limiting access to children of some materials while they do not understand the issues clearly. People should rather have a debate about sex or that they should be a campaign for better sex education in schools, or a  more informed and responsible social attitudes to expression of sexuality should be made possible.  By so doing people are presumed intelligent and free and enhancing the same through education would make their lives more meaningful. More meaningful lives of course would mean better society and better society should mean fewer crimes as people would become more responsible of their choices. Bibliography: Alexander, M. (2002) The First Amendment and Problems of Political Viability: The Case of Internet Pornography; Harvard Journal of Law Public Policy, Vol. 25 Arcand and Grady (1993) The Jaguar and the Anteater: Pornography Degree Zero; Verso Campbell, J. (1988), â€Å"Pornography Is it a Feminist Issue?, â€Å" Australian Feminist Studies, No. 7 Coward, (1982) R. â€Å"Sexual Violence and Sexuality,†Feminist Review, No. 11 Dworkin, A (1990), Mercy, Secker Warburg, London Dworkin, A, (1981), Pornography: Men Possessing Women, Women’s Press London Kelly, L., â€Å"The US Ordinances: Feminism and Censorship Prism Press, Great Britain, 1988†Kuhn, A. (1988), quoted in Campbell (1988), â€Å"Pornography Is it a Feminist Issue?, â€Å" Australian Feminist Studies, No. 7 Lottes et. al. Weller (1993) Reactions to Pornography on a College Campus: For or Against?; Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, Vol. 29 Moon, R. (2000) The Constitutional Protection of Freedom of, University of Toronto Press Rodgerson Wilson (1991) Pornography and Feminism – the Case Against Censorship, Lawrence Wishart Ltd. , London Stark (1997) Is Pornography an Action?: The Causal vs. the Conceptual View of Pornographys Harm ; Social Theory and Practice, Vol. 23 Webb, E. (1995) Pornography and Censorship: Silence or choice?, {www document} URL, http://www
Sunday, October 27, 2019
Overrepresentation Of Ethnic Minorities Essay
Overrepresentation Of Ethnic Minorities Essay The overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in the Criminal Justice System looks like this: in 79.6 of arrests in 2009-10 those who were involved classified their ethnicity as white (Race and the CJS, 2010). In 2010 the rates for indictable offences were higher for white persons at 81% than for ethnic minorities, 74% for black and 77% for Asians (Race and the CJS, 2010). However, statistics show that ethnic minorities are overrepresented at all stages of the Criminal Justice System. In 2009 Black people made up 2.7% of the population aged 10 and above but represented 8.0% of those arrested in England and wales, while Asians made up of 5.6% of the population aged 10 and above and represented 5.6% of those arrested in England and wales (Race and the CJS, 2010). As ethnic minorities they are more likely to be stopped and searched by police, this leads to a greater probability of arrests and in turn may influence the way their cases are dealt with as they progress through the subsequent stages of the criminal justice process. They are less likely to be given unconditional bail, and more likely to be remanded in custody than white offenders. In 2010 a higher percentage of ethnic minorities (Black 27%, Asian 29%, other 42%) were sentenced to immediate custody for indictable offences than whites (23%) (Race and the CJS, 2010). Ethnic minorities are also more likely to receive punitive sentences than white people and are overrepresented in aspects of certain crimes such as robbery, drug offences and -in some areas- firearms offences. Ethnic minorities are also more likely to be the victims of crimes. It was seen in the British crime survey 2010-11 that the risk of being a victim of crime was higher for all ethnic minorities than white groups (Race and the CJS, 2010). Over a period of 5 years the risk of being a victim of crime from the white group had significantly fallen by 8.0% while the decrease in the risk of being a victim of crime from ethnic groups was not stati stically significant. It is apparent that there are also variations in the overrepresentation of different groups within the ethnic minority category and also between gender, patterns and levels of offending also vary significantly (Race and the CJS, 2010). To narrow this down this research, the essay will focus mainly on the overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System, even though it is recognised that those of Asian background are only slightly overrepresented in the prison population in comparison to those of black background. It does not mean there is no need to inquire on whether they too suffer discrimination in the Criminal Justice System or not (Gabbidon, 2010). According to the Race Relations Act 1976, segregating against a person based on racial grounds means treating them less favourably than they should be treated; it is therefore illegal to discriminate through delivery of goods, facilities or services to the public based on racial grounds (John, 1987). This, however, does not apply to officials representing the Crown as they are exercising powers to exclude or punish. Judges are therefore immune when acting in judicial capacity; this means the act does not apply to the se ntencing of offenders in the courts (Gabbidon, 2010). There have been disputes to have this taken out of legislation for it is argued that those in law enforcement who have the power to strip an individual of their freedom and liberty should act in respect of racial origins of the defendant (Michael, 1989). This helps to ensure justice as well as confidence of ethnic minorities in the legal system. Ethnic minorities are also seen to be discriminated against by courts; they are much more severely dealt with when it comes to sentences received in courts, more likely to be sent to prison than whites who have committed the same offence (Hood, 1992). To be able to find out whether sentencing is affected by race and if discrimination does exist it would have to be evident that when all relevant legal variables are taken into account, a higher number of ethnic minorities are given a custodial sentence and/or a longer sentence (Marian, 1991). A strategy to address this overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in sentencing is needed to bring together departments and find ways to reduce it. The aim of this research essay is to look at literature and establish whether patterns of sentencing among ethnic minorities differ in a significant way from patterns of sentencing among whites. It will also look at the nature and extent of the variation in sentencing -if any at all- what might cause the variation and any available solution strategies. The research question that will be investigated will then be: Does racial discrimination exist in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System? It seems almost unjust to answer such a research question without assessing public opinion on the sentencing process and its relation to race as it can be assumed that their opinions are important even though not directly (Hough, 1998). The significance of public opinion can be seen for example in the observation that was made by the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Bingham. He observed that it would not seem right for a judge to ignore any public opinion when in court. Similarly the late and former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher noted the importance of the incorporation of public opinions in the sentencing debate (Hough, 1998). To explore the public opinions on the role of race in the sentencing processes of the Criminal Justice System a questionnaire was distributed to a small sample. The questionnaire helped to explore such a potentially sensitive topic about race and sentencing, especially because the questionnaires were anonymous and completed in private. Key points were identified th at were used in the construction of the questions (see appendix 1 for questionnaire guide) these included available sentencing options for ethnic minorities, imprisonment for different types of offences, sentence leniency and sentencing length. This would shine light on the public opinions and whether or not pressure from these opinions affects the decision making in the sentencing process of the Criminal Justice System and how this decision is influenced by the race of the defendant. LITERATURE REVIEW Since the growth of ethnic minorities in Britain with its peak in the 1990s the interest in their progress has increased. The largest share of ethnic minorities was those who classified themselves as black or Indian (Gabbidon, 2010). The growth of ethnic minorities was not widely accepted and the resistance towards them was shown through racism and violence. Not only were ethnic minorities the victims of these attacks but they were also first to be arrested and sentenced for the same attacks (Gabbidon, 2010). The overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in crime and justice can be seen in early history, for example through the work of Frederick McClintocks crimes of violence (1963), which studies violent crimes and finds that the conviction rate of black people increases by 13% in a span of 10 years (McClintock,1963). This helps to inform the research question as it talks about the history of race and discrimination. It is important to investigate the procedure that occurs when an individual is to be sentenced, when researching the effects of race on the differences in sentencing. This is made clear by Bowling and Phillips (2002), when they note that once a suspect has been charged with an offence at the police station, their case file is sent to the crown prosecution service (CPS) in order that they can make the decision about whether to proceed to court with the case or to terminate the case in which case the defendant does not have to attend court or face criminal charges. Shaun L. Gabbidon draws from this further and claims it is from this that the factors that play a role in such a decision can be determined. According to Gabbidon it is hard to determine that race affects or plays a role in this decision as the race of the defendants is not disclosed (Gabbidon 2010). Showing that race might not be central in this decision. However, even though race might not have an influence at this stage, it is clear to others such as Hood (1992), Mhlanga (1997) and Banks (1999) that race does affect prosecution, sentencing and legal representation. The sentencing process is one of the important stages of the Criminal Justice System, not only is an important decision to be made but this is also how justice is seen as being done (Ashworth, 1983). It is, therefore, important to consider the races of the judges themselves, which in England and Wales are predominantly white. This leads to immediate assumptions that ethnic minorities are then automatically at a disadvantage (Mathews, 2009). Research into this issue may show little bias in race and sentencing, but it is argued that if previous offences and the seriousness of the case are considered, ethnic minorities are most likely to get a harsher sentence (Blumstein, 1982). Ethnic minorities are seen to be very similar, for example when it comes to social economic characteristics and this may be seen as affecting and/or influencing the sentencing decision. This can be seen in a study conducted by Imogen Brown and Roy Hullin (1992). They looked at the decision-making process of over 3,000 defendants, from this they discovered that over 50% of the black defendants were unemployed, this being more than double that of white or Asian defendants was seen as influencing the decision (Brown and Hullin, 1992). The inquiry on the role race has on sentencing is enlarged in the study by Roger Hood (1992). Hood wanted to find out the race effect of sentencing and to do so he looked at 2,884 defendants who appeared in different Crown Courts in the West Midlands. The study was set to identify the variation in sentencing for each ethnic group through multivariate analysis on the basis of 15 variables that were selected. Hoods findings were unsurprising in relation to previous research; he found that the racial difference in sentencing was less than what might have been assumed. He found that only 5% of blacks were more likely to be given a custodial sentence than whites and that 80% of the overrepresentation of black offenders who were in prison were there due to the severity of their offences and not their race. He also found that most ethnic minorities opted the crown court and pleaded not guilty, this however, meant that when found guilty they were more likely to get a harsher sentence (Hood, 1992). It is important however, not to take these findings at face value as hoods study faced a lot of issues both methodologically and theoretically. Representation of this research was also a problem due to the sentencing differences between the courts that were investigated (Hood, 1992). For example Birmingham Crown Court, which had the largest percentage of the whole sample, the chance of a black offender to be given a custodial sentence was one in three; while in Dudley Crown Court the chance was one in two. This means if most of the distribution of cases had been from Dudley Crown Court and not Birmingham Crown Court the results would have been more racially biased (Hood, 1992). The methodological issues resulted mainly from the prediction scale used and its accuracy of only 75 per cent and their risk of custody score which could only include relevant factors and in so doing leaving out important factors such as unemployment (Hood, 1992). Hood himself admitted that he did not aim to provide a general or casual explanation but wants to make sure that the reasons for these differences in treatment between ethnic minorities and whites should remain open to speculation (Spalek, 2008). Although the numbers might be small, Hood did manage to show that discrimination in the crown court exists, both direct (for example through bail decisions, the rate of sentencing and sentence imposed) and indirect (for example through the decision to plead not guilty and social inquiry reports) (Spalek, 2008). It is clear that previous research on race and sentencing tends to focus on the role of the courts and the judges and how they make their decisions. Referencing the work of Hood brings the purpose of this research into context. The research explored public opinions on the role that race plays in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System. Those being researched were approached and informed about the topic of the questionnaire and were prompted to participate (volunteer sampling) this potentially included participants with a variation in gender and age who were interested in and had an opinion about the role of race in the sentencing process of the Criminal Justice System. Research into race and sentencing like those referenced above and others alike bring up concerns about some of the questions left unanswered about the topic. Many of the research findings on race and sentencing have issues -for example methodological and theoretical issues and concerns this results in the difficulty to prove that a relationship between race and the sentencing decision exists (Spalek, 2008). This research will try to contribute to the closure of this gap, by focusing on the attitudes and opinions of the public about their views on the topic. To have a better and deeper understanding of the research findings, the research will be drawing on some theoretical concepts. If discrimination against ethnic minorities does exist, in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System, this could be due to prejudices that are difficult to remove (Anderson and Taylor, 2007). A prejudice is seen as an attitude that serves cognitive and emotional functions. Experience and knowledge is one of these functions, it is important for an individual to feel they know what they are doing and understand the world in which they do it in (Anderson and Taylor, 2007), in this case judges will most likely feel that convicting and sentencing ethnic minorities just because they have been treated so in past cases shows their understanding of the world and how things work. Second is the instrumental function which is associated with rewards and punishments (Anderson and Taylor, 2007). An individual is then most likely to follow the attitudes of their preferred groups just so they could be rewarded in the case of judges for example for promotions and higher pay rolls. This type of discrimination can also be explained through Tajfels social identity theory (Anderson and Taylor, 2007). It talks about the importance of a positive self-image to the individual, and how they feel their social identity is enhanced by categorising people into groups, in and out cast groups. On the other hand, the discrimination against ethnic minorities in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System could be an exaggeration or a myth and this could be explained by the simple fact that ethnic minorities commit more serious crimes that are more likely to get convicted and sentenced compared to white offenders (Spalek, 2008). These factors could all play a part: areas and environment in which they grew up in, social and material deprivation, boundaries up the employment ladder and inadequate socialisation, just to name a few (Mathews, 2009). It is, therefore, evident that it is difficult to draw conclusions that race is the main explanation for the higher and harsher sentence rates of ethnic minorities as there are too many variables affecting the same decision. As race and sentencing are widely researched topics, it is important that their definitions are not assumed. In the questionnaires conducted, race was used in terms of being a system in which categories are created for humans based on their ethnic background (spalek, 2008). Ethnic minority will be used in relation to the different national or cultural traditions that a group has in comparison to the other population (spalek, 2008) in this case being whites, and the ethnic minorities will include blacks and Asians and those who classify themselves as other. Sentencing will include all types of convictions, ranging from custodial/prison sentences to community service. These words were used in this way in the analysis to narrow down and avoid any confusion. This made the topic easier to investigate. METHODS PARTCIPIANTS 15 questionnaires where completed for the purpose of this research; the questionnaires were obtained from individuals whose participation was entirely voluntary and they were not offered any compensation. The participants were approached in Coventry town centre and were asked to complete a questionnaire. Due to the nature of the topic the respondents were given the option to take the questionnaire home and complete it in private. They all varied in gender and age; however, no specifics were noted about their age or gender due to limited time and the low significance of the issue. Volunteer sampling was used, a type of non-probability sampling, through this the volunteers self-selected themselves into the questionnaire (Bryman, 2008). This ensured that those who volunteered to complete the questionnaire had a strong interest in the topic. This sampling method was also beneficial as it reveals important aspects and opinions of the population being sampled. Although this sampling method has questionable issues, especially with representation (Bryman, 2008), this was not much of a problem to the research as it was mainly for exploratory purposes. MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES The method used closed-ended questionnaires. This was seen as the better choice at the time of research as these questionnaires would help to get responses from large quantities at a time with no interviewer effects (Seale, 2004). The research question does racial discrimination exist in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System? Meant that topics to be addressed in the questionnaires would be sensitive and/or embarrassing to some, it was, therefore, easier to be addressed through an anonymous questionnaire (Babbie, 2010). In using questionnaires interviewer variability was avoided and the questionnaires also proved to be more convenient for respondents. The questions were constructed from guided topics (Blaxter, 2010). What was being explored was clear and this resulted in a better understanding of the questions and the questionnaires were then completed at a faster rate (see appendix 2 for questionnaire). After volunteers had shown interest on approach, they were brief ed on the purpose of the research, each volunteer was then informed that they could stop doing the questionnaire at any time and that the questionnaire would remain anonymous and they were reassured that their data would not be used against them, that their information would not be handed to third parties and would only be seen by an examiner. Some of the volunteers completed their questionnaires on the spot and some took them away and posted their responses. A one-week time frame was left for the questionnaires that were taken away; at the end of that week 15 questionnaires were gathered in total. Univariate analysis was used to analyse the questionnaires, this was used because it allowed the analysis of one variable at a time, frequency tables were then used to showcase the data and they were used in relation to all of the different types of variables by providing the number of people and the percentage belonging to each category for the variable being analysed (Bryman, 2008). For research such as this it is important to address some ethical considerations in order to collect good data (OLeary, 2004). In light of this the participants were reassured about the confidentiality of their responses. Participation was voluntary, this meant that informed consent was obtained and so participants understood the research and its i ntentions, and they were not being deceived in any way. FINDINGS AND EXPLANATIONS Results from the analysis of the questionnaires indicated that the public are not satisfied with court systems. The first question on the questionnaire asks respondents about their opinion on the type of job that some criminal justice professional do. Only 23 percent of respondents thought that judges were doing a good job; 48 percent thought that they were doing a fair job and 29 percent thought they were doing a poor job (see appendix 3). Judges received the worst evaluation in comparison to police officers, magistrates and prison officers. Police had the highest percentage of doing a good job at 70 per cent (see appendix 4) and magistrates and prison officers were in the middle with 50 per cent each (see appendix 5 and 6). These findings are supported by the theory of prejudices. According to the theory of prejudice, experience and knowledge are its main functions, it is important for an individual to know what they are doing and understand the world in which they do it in (Anders on and Taylor, 2007). By doubting the work that the judiciary does the public also doubts that the judges know what they are doing and whether or not they understand the world in which they work. Prejudice is hard to remove showing the difficulty in combating the negative opinions of the public. The respondents were then asked about their opinions about the leniency of the sentences that ethnic minorities received for certain crimes (robbery, drug offences and crime offences). Just over half thought that the sentences were too lenient (59 per cent) to some extent and just below half of the respondents (41 per cent) thought that the sentences were lenient enough. In comparison to the previous question it was discovered that about 90 per cent of those who thought judges were doing a poor job also thought that the sentences were too lenient (see appendix 7). This shows that the more judges were seen as being out of touch with society, the more they were seen as doing a poor job, therefore, giving lenient sentences to ethnic minorities. It was then important to establish whether or not the respondents knew about the types of sentences that were available. Respondents were asked to list as many sentencing options as they knew. It was evident that prison was the most widely known, this lack of knowledge of alternative sentences could explain why the public root for harsher sentences or imprisonment. There was limited knowledge of non-custodial sentences. Following prison were community service (70 per cent), fine (65 per cent) and probation (58 per cent). The least popular options included compensation (18 per cent), conditional charge (15 per cent) and electronic tagging (20 per cent) (see appendix 8). It is then clear that although the public are aware of some sentencing penalties, not all of them are known as a result not thought of when the public talk about sentencing. This lack of awareness of the different types of sentencing has significant consequences when trying to determine the role of race in the sentenci ng stages of the Criminal Justice System. The respondents were then questioned about 3 types of crime (robbery, drug and firearm offences). Respondents were asked to estimate that out of every 50 ethnic minorities that were convicted of any of these crimes, how many ended up in prison. Robbery had the highest estimates of individuals ending up in prison (45 out every 50), drug offences were not far off with estimates of 43 of every 50 and drug offences falling behind but not far off with estimates of 40 out of every 50 (see appendix 9). These results were inter-linked, those who estimated high numbers robbery did so too for the remaining categories and those who put slightly lower numbers for robbery also did so for the remaining two categories. The estimates about imprisonment also seemed to be related to the leniency of the sentences the offenders received. For example, the respondents who stated that the sentences were too lenient also put down lower estimates of imprisonment. This shows how unawareness about the sentenci ng practice can be a major source of the disappointment that the public experience about the judiciary. This could be explained by the theory of instrumental function which involves individuals following the attitudes of the groups in which they prefer for rewards rather than punishment (Anderson and Taylor, 2007). So the public, though being ignorant and having no idea about sentencing might still have negative opinions due to the simple fact that this is the view of their preferred group. Through this an individuals self-mage and social identity are seen as being more important (Tajfels social identity theory). REFLEXIVE ACCOUNT OF METHODS The purpose of the methods used was to collect information on public opinions about the process of sentencing and how this is affected by race. The questionnaire was used to collect direct information relating to the opinions of the public about the behaviour of certain people; it also looked at the basic opinions of a group of individuals in relation to the issue in question. The questionnaires were also used to collect information which can then be tracked over time to investigate any new changes (Bryman, 2008). Questionnaires were the choice of method mainly due to the sensitivity of the topic; it made it easy for participants to respond freely to the questions even though they might have felt uncomfortable about the topic (Bryman, 2008). This was because there was no interviewer available and the questions could remain anonymous and could also be completed in private if the respondents wished to do so. During the research the researcher was expected to perform certain duties in order to fulfil their role. Some of these included; taking the responsibility of finding out about what was expected of the research, taking the initiative in identifying any issues and problems, undertaking the recommended reading, producing the written work needed, consulting with tutors about any difficulties that are encountered when undertaking the work, generating ideas, setting realistic deadlines and ensure that the research meets with the required regulations (Babbie, 2010). To ensure credibility of this research, standardised instruments were used because they can be assessed in a direct way. These included objectivity and reliability which are positivist and quantitative constructs (Seale, 2004). Credibility is then achieved through objectivity because with the use of questionnaires the beliefs and values of the researcher could not have affected the results, meaning the findings could not depend on who did the research (Seale, 2004). It is important for researchers to maintain their distance from what they study. Credibility was also achieved through reliability because the questionnaire was close ended and standardised, this means the questionnaire can easily be repeated by different researchers and the chances of measurements being consistent are high. The need for credible research had an effect on the way the research was conducted because to ensure credibility certain guidelines needed to be followed and deviation from these was not permitted. As well as advantages, the method used had limitations and this may have affected the validity of the findings. For example the response rate was low (raising generalizability and representative issues), there was little to no control of who volunteered and completed the questionnaire (can lead to bias). The topic being researched is a complex one, the questionnaire failed to touch upon these complexities of the topic. The responses to the questions were limited and this meant that rich, in-depth and detailed information could not be gathered (Seale, 2004). To avoid these issues in future triangulation can be used, therefore the strengths of one method could make up for the short comings of the other and vice-versa. CONCLUSIONS It is clear that the role of race in certain stages of the Criminal Justice System such as sentencing is very important. From early history its evident that race plays some sort of role in the sentencing of ethnic minorities. The main focus has been on how the race of an individual can increase or decrease their sentence. Through the literature reviewed it is clear that race does influence the role of the sentencing decision making in the Criminal Justice System though not as large as anticipated. It shows that there are far too many variables to accurately study this process and come out with valid and representative results, either way some important variables are left out or irrelevant ones included. The research question: Does racial discrimination exist in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System, is, therefore, answered, however, not with much significance. To take the research question further questionnaires were conducted to assess public opinion on the role of race in the sentencing possesses of the Criminal Justice System. The questionnaires were conducted on a voluntary basis and respondents self-selected themselves to participate. One of the main key findings was the publics dissatisfaction with the court system, it was also significant that those who stressed the poor quality of the execution of work with Criminal Justice professionals also stressed that sentences were too lenient and they were not severe enough, also high estimates of ethnic minority imprisonment were made in relation to specific crimes. Through this, it was concluded after the analysis of 15 questionnaires that most of the respondents had little or no knowledge of alternative types of sentencing and that this had major consequences when it came to the accuracy of their opinions about the role of race on sentencing decisions. The research question was then furth er informed, from the analysis of public opinions it can be argued that racial discrimination does exist in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System, but to some extent. However, the sample was too small to draw any significant conclusions from the findings due to the issues associated with methodology and theory. If the opportunity was to arise, this study would be taken a step further; it would be expanded to include a larger and more representative sample. More respondents would give the opportunity to include a more generalizable sample and therefore result in more reliable and valid results about how race influences the sentencing decisions in the Criminal Justice System.
Friday, October 25, 2019
Qualitative and Quantitative Research Essays -- Evaluation Methods
Introduction This essay aims to cover two main focus points. The first section of this essay will take an in depth look at the major differences between two research methods – Qualitative and Quantitative. I will explore when and why they are used for specific types of research and how they apply to some types of work more effectively. The second area for this essay will be based around the research question- what factors contribute to you feeling anxious during sport or exercise? I will then go on to show that the best method to use to analyse this will be by using qualitative research, and then how it can be applied to it to extract all relevant information from it. Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods The qualitative and quantitative research methods are divided by many fundamental differences. You could suggest that these two research methods represent the two different ends of a linear spectrum. Qualitative research looks to deal with the in depth, word based side of research whereas on the other end of the spectrum quantitative research works predominantly with number based research and statistics. Birley and Moreland (1998) support this by saying that â€Å"the two methodologies reflect various paradigms and that the theoretical model that each method uses to conduct the research come from different areas†. Qualitative research involves the consideration of emotions and thought processes concerning certain situations, whilst quantitative data collection sets about using statistics and numbers to determine the results (Mosby's Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, & Health Professions). In addition, qualitative research gives a more detailed view of a situation compared to quantitative, which only collects discrete d... ... European Journal of Sport Science. 8 (3), p143. Holt, N.L and Mandigo, J.L. (2004). Coping with performance worries among youth male cricket players. Journal of sport behaviour. 27 (1) p39-57 Kerr, J and Grange, P. (2010). Physical aggression in Australian football: A qualitative study of elite athletes. Psychology of Sport & Exercise. P11 Open Coding (No date). Available from http://www.researchproposalsforhealthprofessionals.com/open_coding.htm(06/03/12) Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ‘quantitative analysis’ 2009, in Mosby's Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, & Health Professions, Elsevier Health Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, USA Silverman, D: (2006) What is qualitative research?. Interpreting qualitative data: methods for analyzing talk, text and interaction. 3rd ed., London: Sage. p.48
Thursday, October 24, 2019
Cost of College Essay
Flipping burgers at a fast food restaurant, stocking shelves in a grocery store, and working on a production line in a factory are just a few of the many minimum-wage paying jobs that so many people have in America. People in this country are settling for a high school diploma, minimum-wage paying jobs, and broken spirits. The cost of college is too high, and they cannot afford to further their education. Student loan debts are, for the first time in history, exceeding what Americans owe on credit cardsâ€â€over $1 trillion (Sullivan, 2012, para. 1). For many, the rising cost of college may not be just a news headline, but a real life let down. The core of the problem: tuition and fees at public universities have surged almost 130 percent over the last 20 years, while middle class incomes have idled. (Censky, 2011, p. 1) Endless Cycle Many Americans are not being able to further their education because the cost is too high, which results in having to settle for a poorly paying job. Then when they start a family, they do not have enough money to send their children to college. It really is an endless cycle of an ever-growing lower and middle class. The number of college graduates is becoming less every year because of the increasing rate of tuition, room and board, and fees. At the same time, it is becoming increasingly difficult to find a job above minimum wage without a college diploma. Missing Out For much of U.S. history, the chance to obtain a higher education was mainly an opportunity given only to the wealthy (College Tuition Costs, 2004, p. 450). Countless brilliant and smart individuals live in the lower class of our society. It is not fair that they are not getting a chance at furthering their education just because their family cannot afford to send them. Available to certain students, of course, are student loans, grants, scholarships, and financial aid. Sadly, not everyone qualifies for scholarships or receives enough money to even make a dent in the debt they will acquire going to a university for four or more years. Furthermore, a lot of people receive zero help at all in paying for their college education. Since college is becoming less affordable for low-income students, higher education is once again becoming dominated by the wealthy (College Tuition Costs, 2004, p. 452). Being Held Back Because of Funding Because of the growing rate of tuition, room and board, and fees at universities, many seniors in high school are deciding where they attend college based on the cost. For many teenagers, the deciding factor of where they go to school is who gives them the biggest scholarship or which school costs less. Instead of going where they truly want to go, and where they know they could get the best education, they have to settle for the school that meets their financial limitations (Cost of College Affecting Application and Acceptance Decisions, 2011, p. 1). People wanting to pursue a higher education should be able to totally devote themselves to their studies. Instead, with a constantly plummeting economy, they have to worry about how to earn money (like get a job) to help pay for their education. This could be extra worry that students who are trying to focus on their studies should not have! Scholarships are very unlikely to cover the total cost and students who manage to obtain one successfully still have to work to earn their living. Earning enough money to pay for a college education is next to impossible with a part-time job, while working full-time leaves students with no time to study, which means that the money is actually wasted! With the cost of college constantly increasing, many students that are already in college cannot finish because they do not have the funds. The thought of trying to start out a life in the â€Å"real world†with potentially over $50 thousand debt is extremely daunting. Many people view borrowing money as a burden, which holds them back from wanting to take out student loans to go to college. More College Graduates Could Help Boost the Economy Student loan debts are sure to be a hot topic in the upcoming 2012 presidential debate. Unless the government steps in to help pay for college education, more and more people are going to have to give up their dreams of a higher education. Individuals should not have to give up financial security just to earn a college degree. If more people are obtaining college degrees, that increases the number of people who are likely to have higher paying jobs. According to News Hour Extra: Research shows that college graduates earn, on average, $20,000 a year more than those who only have a high school diploma. College graduates also tend to get higher quality jobs with benefits and have the chance to earn advanced degrees, which offer even greater earning potential. (Cost of College Affecting Application and Acceptance Decisions, 2011, p. 2) This fact could boost America’s economy and really help the recession. Perhaps the job market will get better and it will be easier to recuperate after the thousands of dollars spent on one’s degree. Or maybe the recession will end and funding for education will be restored. But as prices of virtually everything increase, that of a college education may continue to increase as well. Unfortunately, for now it seems that students in the United States will have to wait for a solution – unless they themselves try something drastic to alter this unfair system.
Tuesday, October 22, 2019
COMMAS Essays - Linguistics, Syntax, Dependent Clause, Free Essays
COMMAS Essays - Linguistics, Syntax, Dependent Clause, Free Essays COMMAS Basics Most versatile punctuation mark in English Ways to use a comma: separating a list of three or more items setting off non-essential information linking closely-related independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction (i.e. FANBOYS) Lists (of Nouns, Modifiers) Commas can be used to separate items in a list or series Any list greater than 2 items requires commas between each item "I love Taylor Swift, Kanye, and Beyonce" requires commas because the list has 3 items. However, "I love Kanye and Beyonce" doesn't use a comma because it contains only 2 things...pretty simple, right? It's important to keep in mind that lists can be made of any part of speech "I wanted his hipster glasses, cargo shorts, and skater-boy shoes" lists nouns "I swam, biked, and ran in our school's triathlon" lists verbs "The skunk was big, hairy, and smelly" lists adjectives "I behaved foolishly, beastly, and wildly at the party" lists adverbs Remember: the ACT will always use the Oxford comma...don't forget! Non-Essential Information Commas often set off clauses not essential to the meaning of a sentence If this information appears in the beginning, it will be followed by a comma. If it's in the middle of the sentence, it will be surrounded by commas. It never appears at the end of a sentence In the beginning of sentence: "In May, I will buy a hoverboard." In the middle of sentence: "The man with the shady mustache, whom I saw walking down the street, kept winking at me." There are seven types of clauses that can be set off this way (bear with me here) Appositive : A noun phrase providing a specific description to a following piece of information "Abebe, a videogamer, coded his own videogame." "A videogamer" = specific description that follows "Jason." Relative clause : provides more information about noun it's describing contains who/whom/whose/which and a verb "Shonda, who typically likes fried chicken, only ate french fries when she went to KFC." John doing well on tests = extra information Participle clause : similar to a relative clause, but uses a participle to provide additional information - a participle being a verb ending in the "ing" suffix "Andres, eating grapes, choked and died." "Eating" = participle and "eating grapes" = participle clause Temporal clause : provides time for when something happened "When Lady Gaga comes to town, I'm going to dress up as an egg." The time I'll dress up as an egg = "when Lady Gaga comes to town" (temporal clause) Causal clause : provides cause of action "Because he saw a clown, he peed his pants." Seeing the clown caused him to pee his pants Contrast clause : provides contextual information, making events of the main clause unexpected "Although I'm not a superstar, I'm still divalicious." Words like "although," "however," "regardless of" = contrast Conditional clause : states that events of the main clause are dependent on something else (the effect of something else happening) "If I meet Zayn Malik, I'm going to give him my number." "If" = the conditional state. In general, look for "if/then" sentences TIP : Try reading the sentence without the information set off by commas. If it still makes sense afterwards, then the information was non-essential Comma + Coordinating Conjunction Commas connect two clauses that could be complete sentences on their own. This can ONLY be done when the two sentences are closely related The sentences "Ani drinks coffee every day" and "She's addicted to caffeine" could be joined since both relate to Ani's relationship with coffee However, "I never miss an episode of The Walking Dead" and "Conrad will go to Oologah, Oklahoma in October" have absolutely nothing to do with each other, so it doesn't make sense to combine these sentences IMPORTANT: For a comma to connect two complete sentences, the comma must be followed by a FANBOYS conjunction FANBOYS stands for: F or, A nd, N or, B ut, O r, Y et, S o Example 1: Clauses: "The dj started playing her set shortly after they turned up." "the dj" is the subject, "started" is the verb, and it represents a complete thought = independent clause "It took them longer than usual to
Monday, October 21, 2019
FICO Scores for Clients
FICO Scores for Clients Adding insult to injury, is a tough economy, where collections of all kinds have become problematic. Which is why businesses are doing their â€Å"due diligence†to make sure that customers have a history of timely payments, and that they are in good financial health before signing on the dotted line. This is determined What is a FICO score? Its simply a 3-digit number that reflects your credit-worthiness. Think of it as being like a grading system. And we all have one, if weve financed a purchase like a house or a car, or a big ticket item. This score takes into account your history with lenders, what types of credit you have had, and how long youve had a credit history. The score ranges from 300-850. As business owners, freelancers should follow suit and apply a similar type of screening to assess potential clients. Why? Because late and missed payments can impact our quality of life, cause undue hardship, and make it difficult to provide for our families. And though you can’t obtain their credit information per se, there are ways for you to easily research and analyze the backgrounds of potential clients to detect red flags and assess the likelihood of future pay and profitability. FICO SCORING FOR FREELANCE CLIENTS AND PROJECTS FFeedback. When you perform a Google Search on the individual or compan y, do you see any complaints? Are Blog comments typically positive? How about reviews through Amazon or consumer websites? Be wary if there’s a lot of negative press or shady activities reported.  IImage. Is their branding smart and savvy? Is their marketing message clear and effective? Would you â€Å"buy into†what they’re selling? Does the company have a blog? Is it updated regularly with quality posts? What are the analytics at their site? Do they get a lot of visitors? To check and assess visit ALEXA.COM for details. Alexa is a website that provides stats on sites traffic, demographics, and success metrics. This is something to consider in your evaluation process. CContinuity. How long has the individual or business been in operation? Has it been under the same structure and affiliation? Or have they been in and out of different projects and pursuits under different names or titles? The point here is that you don’t want to be affiliated with a â€Å"fly You’ve worked hard to land work. But, if you can’t collect what you’ve earned, you’ve toiled in vain. Though there’s always a degree of risk when applying to freelance positions, you can protect yourself Remember, ignoring red flags could ultimately keep your business in the red.
Sunday, October 20, 2019
An Assessment of the American Psychological Association in the Development of Professional Knowledge and Abilities of Members
An Assessment of the American Psychological Association in the Development of Professional Knowledge and Abilities of Members Consecutive studies demonstrate that career success is primarily a function of ability, personality, knowledge, opportunity, and the interactions between these variables (Rode et al., 2008). Additionally, the scope of job tasks, responsibilities, and expectations have also been cited as critical determinants of career success. Abele Spurk (2009) defines career success as the positive psychological or job-related outcomes an individual accumulates as a direct result of work-related experiences.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on An Assessment of the American Psychological Association in the Development of Professional Knowledge and Abilities of Members specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Professional bodies and organizations have been credited for assisting employees to work towards achieving their career goals and objectives and, therefore, play an important role in complimenting the efforts of employees towards the attainment of career success. This paper purposes to explain how the American Psychological Association (APA) assists its members in the development of professional knowledge and abilities, and how this impacts the career success of psychologists in the various fields of practice. Headquartered in Washington, the APA is a scientific and professional organization with over 150,000 members, thus making it the largest association of psychologists globally. According to its homepage, â€Å"†¦the mission of the APA is to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people’s lives†(APA, 2010, para. 2). Among other things, this mission is based on continual pursuit of excellence, outstanding service to members and society, knowledge and its application based on methods of science, and ethical action in all the organization’s endeavors. The APA contributes towards the enhancement of professional knowledge and abilities of its members in a number of ways. First, the organization is not only the foremost catalyst for the stimulation, development, and dissemination of psychological knowledge and practice, but it is the primary resource for all psychologists, not mentioning that it is the premier trendsetter in the education, nurturing, and training of psychologists, practitioners, and educators (APA, 2010). Its comprehensive undertaking in research provides members with a framework to keep abreast of current issues in the broad field of psychology, and enhances their practical knowledge and abilities in dealing with new and challenging issues. In addition, the association provides members with the opportunity to network and exchange critical ideas that goes along way to sharpen their abilities to contribute more to the enhancement of human rights, health, well-being, and self-respect (APA, 2010).Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More What’s more, the publications and annual conventions arranged by the organization allows young psychologists the chance to interact with experienced members and exchange knowledge and ideas that are inarguably critical to the practice judging by the fact that psychology is an evolving discipline. The association gives its members an enabling environment to develop their professional knowledge and expertise through interaction and collaboration. Lastly, it is imperative to mention that any professional body gives its members a sense of belonging and a framework for furthering their interests, and the APA is no exception (Kuijpers et al., 2006). As already mentioned, career success is primarily a function of an individual’s knowledge and abilities. Individuals always strive to build a successful career, and a professional body that will provide them with the basic ingredients for career success is mos t welcome. Knowledge and abilities will enhances an individual’s chances to gain materially in terms of pay and hierarchical position, otherwise known as objective career success (Abele Spurk, 2008). In the same vein, having adequate knowledge and capabilities brings job satisfaction, motivation and enhanced social status, therefore enabling one to achieve what is known as subjective career success. As such, it can be concluded that engagement in professional organizations enhance one’s career success. Reference List Abele, A.E., Spurk, D. (2009). How do objective and subjective career success interrelate over times? Journal of Occupational Organizational Psychology, 82(4), 803-824. Retrieved from MasterFILE Premier Database American Psychological Association. (2010). About APA. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/about/index Kuijpers, M.A.C.T., Schyns, B., Schreerens, J. (2006). Career competencies for career success. Career Development Quarterly, 55(2), 168-178. R etrieved from MasterFILE Premier DatabaseAdvertising We will write a custom research paper sample on An Assessment of the American Psychological Association in the Development of Professional Knowledge and Abilities of Members specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Rode, C.R., Arthaud-Day, M.L., Mooney, C.H., Near, J.P., Baldwin, T.T. (2008). Ability and personality predictors of salary, perceived job success and perceived career success in the initial career stage. International Journal of Selection Assessment, 16(3), 292-299. Retrieved from Academic Source Premier Database
Saturday, October 19, 2019
Global Development Strategy of Siemens AG Case Study
Global Development Strategy of Siemens AG - Case Study Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that in order to capitalize on the strength of the systems that the company has produced over the years as well as opportunities with the advancement of information technology, Siemens AG has come up with the â€Å"EWSD NetManager project.†This project aims to integrate the EWSD network nodes and networks into a user-friendly and graphics based software product to telecoms customers. This integration aims to provide the customers a complete range of facilities in order for them to operate, administer, and maintain the functions of their customers EWSD network nodes and networks. This project requires the expertise in the EWSD technology as well as expertise in desktop computing languages. Siemens over the years has developed distinct specializations in its independently running RDCs. The company RDC in Florida, for example, has developed a significant technical expertise in handling EWSD. However, because the Boca Raton RDC in Florida has been given much independence in their operations, their expertise is usually tailored to those of the needs of the local customers. Thus, the expertise that they have developed has been different from those of the main office in Munich, Germany. Siemens another RDC in Bangalore, India, however, has the technical expertise when it comes to desktop computing languages. These RDCs provide different advantages when it comes to the decision of which one should handle the NetManager project. In pursuing this project, Horst Eberl and Karl-Friedrich Hunke, the two subdivisional co-heads of Siemens Information and Communications Network, have unearthed several hindrances to the implementation and commencement of the NetManager project. When the company has decided to give the task to its Bangalore RDCs because of its technical expertise on desktop computing languages as well the lower costs of operations, the difference in the RDCs way of doing things has to lead to a major crisis in Si emens.
Friday, October 18, 2019
Personal case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words
Personal - Case Study Example I major in Hutment development and leadership with concentration area of the HDL in Murray state. I anticipate graduating on 5th October 2014. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory My life dates back when I was a little girl. I was a jovial and playful baby. The people around me were truthful which led to the elemental sense of my trustworthiness. I depended on my mother and my father for care, comfort and sustenance. By this time, my relative comprehension of the world came from my parents, particularly my mother, and their interactions with me. My parents’ regularity, warmth and reliable fondness exposed me to a world ruled by trust. There was no point in my life that my parents failed to offer a secure surrounding to meet my basic need. Just like noted under Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory, this would have created mistrust which would have resulted to suspicions, lack of confidence, withdrawal and frustration to me. Just like the Erik Erikson’s theory explains, m y mother and father took good care of me as I went through a critical stage of growth. It is essential that a child is taken good care at that age since trust and mistrust can be gained and affect the future life of the child. The theory explains how the child gains mistrust to the surrounding people if he is mishandled. The care giver that I had was appropriate in terms of response and attendance. My parents ensured that they responded on time for any need that required them to attend me. Handling me with great concern was one of the critical factors that shaped me to what I am today. During this age nearing two years, I learned about love from the surrounding. I gained immense affection from the attendance they offered me. When I needed anything, my parents ensured that they provide for me and responded to my cries in the best way possible. This contributed towards achieving the strong platforms that am founded on. The theory explains that when an infant fails to have trust toward s his or her care givers, he embraces mistrust towards the surrounding and the entire care givers. Contrary to this, I gained trust towards them and the entire surroundings. This enabled me to have an interesting life as I went through this stage. I also went on my life embracing the aspect of secure world. As I grew older, I started to choose cloths by myself. By the age of 3, I had gained control over eliminative roles and would make choices in my life while I explored the environment around me. Needless to say, my parents still provided a secure environment where I would carry out my own activities at will. My parents were patient and would wait to look at my choices and would correct me if I had gone wrong at some point. At this time of my life, I had developed a strong interest in reading and played with the radio. My parents gave me a chance to express myself and be using different things inside the house and outside. I realized that I could move my limbs through the support o f items like the table. After my parents realized that I could move through the support of a items, they bought me a walker that I used to move swiftly with. The walker gave me confidence of moving and enhanced my muscles, where I later decided to walk on my own without support. During this period, I was about two years and was going through the stage of autonomy verses shame and doubt. This is a theory well explained by Erik. I learned many things that allowed me to express myself
Ethical and nonethical Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Ethical and nonethical - Essay Example (Ethical 2011) Un-ethical is simply the opposite of ethical, or an action that avoids the moral issues surrounding said decision. Non-ethical simply calls for a lack of ethical obligation one way or the other. Someone can be un-ethical, however, an object cannot be. Though the object can be non-ethical and in fact by definition is. An example is a vehicle which is non-ethical by default as it cannot make decisions or reason and therefore cannot be un-ethical. Some examples of ethical issues in the workplace can be related directly to me in that ethically I am bound to complete the tasks given to me according to the agreement made to work in said workplace. Additionally ethical dilemmas may arise when called upon to preform outside of the set duties given to me by my mangers. I could perform the work however, would expect additional pay as a result, otherwise the management is preforming in an un-ethical manner. Generally outside of that there are only personal ethical dilemmas such a s potential relationships within the workplace with coworkers, policy is such so that personal fraternization is frowned upon and seen as a potential ethical dilemma. Specifically this would become a serious breach of ethics and policy if that fraternization was occurring between a member of management and a non-management employee. The reason for this is that anyone fraternizing in a manner that could possibly be influenced or influential upon the others career is a serious breach of ethics and in most companies policy as well. This has not occurred at this point, however it is a clear example of an ethical dilemma. Ethical,. (2011). definition of ethical. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethical Second questions- The three models of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) are the economic model, philanthropic model and the social web model. The Harvard Kennedy school of business defines Corporate Social Responsibility as, â€Å"beyond philanthropy and compli ance and addresses how companies manage their economic, social, and environmental impacts, as well as their relationships in all key spheres of influence: the workplace, the marketplace, the supply chain, the community, and the public policy realm.†(Corporate Social Responsibility, 2011) Understanding the definition of the term CSR is an important part of understanding which model is the most persuasive personally. In looking to the text and additional resources the idea supporting the social web model seems the most appropriate of the three models. The social web model is a beneficial model for society as a whole and provides support through interaction versus simply giving services or products away or selling for a profit. People chose to interact simply because that is what humans and other animals do, they socialize and travel and live in groups. The social web model helps align the goals of the corporation with the daily life challenges and decisions faced by all those i nvolved in the local or global society. While this is a beneficial approach for other humans it may not always reflect as such with the bottom line, especially when profit is required by stockholders in any publicly traded corporation. As a result the most utilized CSR model is likely the economic model, a balance of economic decisions based on the need for profit and the need to contribute to the social web as
Materialism and Domination in Ben Jonson's Volpone Research Paper
Materialism and Domination in Ben Jonson's Volpone - Research Paper Example The concept materialism is many times associated with political nature where, agents of politics are seen as materialist. Marxist provided us with knowledge of how the society works and thus, poets and philosophers can predict how the society will behave over time (Friedman, 1974). When you look at Marxist versus historical materialism the idea of a society developing from one stage to another can be seen although such transition is characterized by several conflicts that arise between social relations and productive forces. Marxist believed that a change in ideas could not change the society because dominant ideas that the reformers use to bring change to the society are embedded in material conditions. In the play â€Å"Volpone†various characters portray acts of materialism and dominance among and against each other. In this play, two characters by the name Volpone and Moscow play the servant master relationship, for an individual to employ a servant, he must possess some m aterial things such as money, physical comforts which can be seen by the way a person spends his jewelry, his clothes and behavior around other people. Servants normally would be submissive to their master and follow their masters’ instructions to the letter. ... For example, in the capitalist exploitation of labor is a common phenomenon as portrayed by Marxist. In the play a similar behavior is seen in Volpone, he wants to exploit the likes of Voltore, Corbaccio and Corvino. Because he possesses a significant amount of vast wealth with no heir and he knows that several people would fall prey in his trap in the quest to be named the beneficiary of his wealth or at least be given a portion of the wealth. Volpone thinks that because he owns material wealth he can easily dominate over peoples thoughts. This is evident in the actions of the three characters, Voltore, Corbaccio and Corvino, who bring him gift after gift hoping their generosity to the sick man will be repaid in tenfold. It is so ironic that even though Volpone’s servant has no wealth he is able to manipulate him contrary to his expectation. Mosca plots a lot of schemes for his master and the other three individuals, Voltore, Corvino, and Corbaccio, portraying his desire to d ominate above everyone. The desire for wealth is a common phenomenon in this play, Volpone, Mosca, Corvino Corbaccio and Voltore all desire wealth. In their pursuit to achieve this goal, they seek to outdo each other in the different plots they come up with. Volpone and Mosca seek to cheat the lawyer, the merchant and the old miser who is also on the verge of dying, on the other hand, Mosca is encouraging the three to continue bringing gifts to his master, he does this intentionally because he has a plan that will benefit him. Volpone has a great desire to accumulate as much gold as he can, he says to his servant â€Å"I long to have possession of my new present†, his servant uses
Thursday, October 17, 2019
Evaluation of Agency's Public Personnel Administration, Part 2 Essay
Evaluation of Agency's Public Personnel Administration, Part 2 - Essay Example Coaching sessions are always targeted on their senior employees and managers of various units. The organization has enough and sufficient resources for purposes of developing and training its employees. The organization is funded by user’s fees. The organization charges fees on various services it offers. Such fees include the visa processing fees, fees paid to access the various forms that the organization offers. For example, in 2008, the congress allocated 1% of the federal budget to fund the activities of USCIS. The remaining 99% emanated from the various fees charged to users. These financial resources help the organization to train its employees for purposes of imparting the necessary skills that the organization needs. The organization manages to clearly identify its mission statement, and core values to its employees. In communicating these messages, the organization uses their official websites, at the about us page. The organization values integrity, vigilance, respe ct and ingenuity. Employees of the organization have to work hard to satisfy these values (About Us, 2013). Weaknesses of US Citizenship and Immigration Services: One major weakness of the organization is that its employees are not trained on the capability to enforce the various immigration laws. The responsibility to enforce these laws lies on the federal and state security organs. For instance, immigration officials cannot arrest nor detain a suspected drug trafficker using falsified immigration documents at the border. All they have to do is to notify the police so an arrest can be made (Kretsedemas, 2012). Employees of the organization are also faced with too much work. This is because the employees have to verify and check on the profiles of numerous applications. The number of people applying for citizenship and visa always range to millions. There is a need for relevant technology to help in these areas (Kretsedemas, 2012). Linkages and Personnel Management: The organization has a presence on almost all the countries of the world. This is because of an interest by citizens of other countries to visit the States. This organization seconds its employees to the various embassies of the country, who in turn offer their services there. Due to their international presence, the organization normally trains its international employees on the various aspects of international relations. This knowledge is necessary because it will help them interact with the communities in which they are sent to work in (Eastman, 2012). On this basis, the organization will post its employees to work in positions that they have skills in. The best human resource management theory that explains this approach is the motivational theory. According to this theory, the management has to motivate its human resource personnel for purposes of achieving the best results. Providing education on international relations is an important way of motivating these staff. Personnel Recruitment and Hiring Practices: One of the major components of the organizations systems goals and practices is to identify and develop the necessary talent amongst its employees. Talent identification is a major goal of the various human resources policies of the company. This involves conducting performance appraisals for purposes of identifying top performers. The organization will either promote these people, or train them further for purposes of
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